Sabtu, 24 Mei 2014

Tugas III ( Bahasa Inggris Bisnis II)



STRUCTURE STRATEGY FOR ANSWERING QUESTIONS IN THE TOEFL TEST

The second section of the TOEFL test is the Structure and Written Expression section. This section consists of forty questions (some tests may be longer). You have twenty-five minutes to complete the forty questions in this section.
Structure (questions 1-15) consists of fifteen sentences in which part of the sentence has been replaced with a blank. Each sentence is followed by four answer choices. You must choose the answer that completes the sentence in a grammatically correct way.
GENERAL STRATEGIES
1.      Be familiar with the directions.
The directions on every TOEFL test are the same, so it is not necessary to spend time reading the directions carefully when you take the test You should be completely familiar with the directions before the day of the test.
2.      Begin with questions I through 15.
Anticipate that questions I through 5 will be the easiest. Anticipate that questions 11 through 15 will be the most difficult. Do not spend too much time on questions 11 through 15.There will be easier questions that come later.
3.      Continue with questions 16 through 40.
Anticipate that questions 16 through 20 will be the easiest. Anticipate that questions 36 through 40 will be the most difficult. Do not spend too much time on questions 36 through 40.
4.      If you have time, return to questions 11 through 15.
You should spend extra time on questions 11 through 15 only after you spend all the time that you want on the easier questions.
5.      Never leave any answers blank on your answer sheet.
Even if you are not sure of the correct response, you should answer each question.There is no penalty
for guessing.

STRATEGIES FORTHE STRUCTURE QUESTIONS
1.      First study the sentence.
Your purpose is to determine what is needed to complete the sentence correctly.
2.      Then study each answer based on how well it completes the sentence.
Eliminate answers that do not complete the sentence correctly.
3.      Do not try to eliminate incorrect answers by looking only at the answers.
The incorrect answers are generally correct by themselves.The incorrect answers are generally incorrect only when used to complete the sentence.
4.      Never leave any answers blank.
Be sure to answer each question even if you are unsure of the correct response.
5.      Do not spend too much time on the Structure questions.
Be sure to leave adequate time for the Written Expression questions.

The following skills will help you to implement these strategies in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
SENTENCES WITH ONE CLAUSE
Some sentences in English have just one subject and verb, and it is very important for you to find the subject and verb in these sentences. In some sentences it is easy to find the subject and verb. However, certain structures, such as objects of prepositions, appositives, and participles, can cause confusion in locating the subject and verb because each of these structures can look like a subject or verb. The object of the preposition can be mistaken for a subject.
Therefore, you should be able to do the following in sentences with one subject and verb:
1.      Be sure the sentence has a subject and a verb
2.      Be careful of objects of prepositions and appositives when you are looking for the subject, and
3.      Be careful of present participles and past participles when you are looking for the verb.

SKILL 1: BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A VERB
You know that a sentence in English should have a subject and a verb. The most common types of problems that you will encounter in the Structure section of the TOEFL test have to do with subjects and verbs: perhaps the sentence is missing either the subject or the verb or both, or perhaps the sentence has an extra subject or verb. The following chart oudines what you should remember about subjects and verbs:


SUBJECT AND VERBS
A sentence in English must have at least one subject and one verb.

 
 




Example I       :
____ was backed up for miles on the freeway.
a.       Yesterday
b.      In the morning
c.       Traffic
d.      Cars
In this example you should notice immediately that there is a verb (was), but there is no subject. Answer (C) is the best answer because it is a singular subject that agrees with the singular verb was. Answer (A), yesterday, and answer (B), in the morning, are not subjects, so they are not correct. Although answer (D), cars, could be a subject, it is not correct because cars is plural and it does not agree with the singular verb was.
Example II     :
Engineers____ for work on the new space program.
a.    Necessary
b.    are needed
c.    hopefully
d.   next month
In this example you should notice immediately that the sentence has a subject (engineers), and that there is no verb. Because answer (B), are needed, is a verb, it is the best answer. Answers (A), (C), and (D) are not verbs, so they are not correct.

SKILL 2: BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS
An object of a preposition is a noun or a pronoun that comes after a preposition, such as in, at, of, to, by, behind, on, and so on, to form a prepositional phrase. (After his exams) Tom will take a trip (by boat). This sentence contains two objects of prepositions. Exams is the object of the preposition after and boat is the object of the preposition by. An object of a preposition can cause confusion in the Structure section of the TOEFL test because it can be mistaken for the subject of a sentence.
The following chart outlines the key information that you should remember about objects of prepositions:


OBJECT OF PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun that is called an object of the preposition. If a word is an object of a preposition, it is not the subject.

 
 




Example         :
With his friend _____ found the movie theater.
a.       Has
b.      He
c.       Later
d.      when
In this example you should look first for the subject and the verb. You should notice the verb found and should also notice that there is no subject. Do not think that friend is the subject; friend is the object of the preposition with, and one noun cannot be both a subject and an object at the same time. Because a subject is needed in this sentence, answer (B), he, is the best answer. Answers (A), (C), and (D) are not correct because they cannot be subjects.

SKILL 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES
Appositives can cause confusion in the Structure section of the TOEFL test because an appositive can be mistaken for the subject of a sentence. An appositive is a noun that comes before or after another noun and has the same meaning. The following chart outlines the key information that you should remember about appositives:


APPOSITIVES
An appositive is a noun that comes before or after another noun and is generally set off from the noun with commas. If a word is an appositive, it is not the subject. The following appositive structures are both possible in English.


 
 





The following example shows how an appositive can be confused with the subject of a sentence in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
____, George, is attending the lecture.
a.       Right now
b.      Happily
c.       Because of the time
d.      My friend
In this example you should recognize from the commas that George is not the subject of the sentence. George is an appositive. Because this sentence still needs a subject, the best answer is (D), my friend. Answers (A), (B), and (C) are incorrect because they are not subjects.
SKILL 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES
A present participle is the -ing form of the verb (talking, playing). In the Structure section of the TOEFL test a present participle can cause confusion because it can be either a part of the verb or an adjective. It is part of the verb when it is preceded by some form of the verb be. The following chart outlines what you should remember about present participles:


PRESENT PARTICIPLE
A present is the -ing form of the verb. The present participle can be :
1.      part of the verb or
2.      an adjective.
 It is part of the verb when it is accompanied by some form of the verb be. It is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of the verb be.

 
 







The following example shows how a present participle can be confused with the verb in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
The child ____ playing in the yard is my son.
a.       Now
b.      Is
c.       He
d.      was
In this example, if you look at only the first words of the sentence, it appears that child is the subject and playing is part of the verb. If you think that playing is part of the verb, you might choose answer (B), is, or answer (D), was, to complete the verb. However, these two answers are incorrect because playing is not part of the verb. You should recognize that playing is a participial adjective rather than a verb because there is another verb in the sentence (is). In this sentence there is a complete subject (child) and a complete verb (is), so this sentence does not need another subject or verb. The best answer here is (A).

SKILL 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES
Past participles can cause confusion in the Structure section of the TOEFL test because a past participle can be either an adjective or a part of a verb. The past participle is the form of the verb that appears with have or be. It often ends in -ed, but there are also many irregular past participles in English. (See Appendix F for a list of irregular past participles). The following chart outlines what you should remember about past participles:


PAST PARTICIPLE
A past participle often ends in -ed but there are also many irregular past participle. For many verbs, including -ed verbs, the simple past and the past participle are the same and can be easily confused. The -ed form of the verb can be :
1.      the simple past,
2.      the past participle of a verb, or
3.      an adjective.

 
 








The following example shows how a past participle can be confused with the verb in the structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
The packages____ mailed at the post office will arrive Monday.
a.       Have
b.      Were
c.       Them
d.      just
In this example, if you look only at the first few words of the sentence, it appears that packages is the subject and mailed is either a complete verb or a past participle that needs a helping verb. But if you look further in the sentence, you will see that the verb is will arrive. You will then recognize that mailed is a participial adjective and is therefore not part of the verb. Answers (A) and (B) are incorrect because mailed is an adjective and does not need a helping verb such as have or were. Answer (C) is incorrect because there is no need for the object them. Answer (D) is the best answer to this question.

SENTENCES WITH MULTIPLE CLAUSES
Many sentences in English have more than one clause. (A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb.) Whenever you find a sentence on the TOEFL test with more than one clause, you need to make sure that every subject has a verb and every verb has a subject. Next you need to check that the various clauses in the sentence are correctly joined. There are various ways to join clauses in English. Certain patterns appear frequently in English and on the TOEFL test. You should be very familiar with these patterns.



SKILL 6: USE COORDINATE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
When you have two clauses in an English sentence, you must connect the two clauses correctly. One way to connect two clauses is to use and, but, or, so, of yet between the clauses. The following chart lists the coordinate connectors and the sentence pattern used with them:
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The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
A power failure occurred,____the lamps went out.
a.       Then
b.      So
c.       Later
d.      next
In this example you should notice quickly that there are two clauses, a power failure occurred and the lamps went out. This sentence needs a connector to join the two clauses. Then, later, and next are not connectors, so answers (A), (C), and (D) are not correct. The best answer is answer (B) because SO can connect two clauses.

SKILL 7: USE ADVERB TIME AND CAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
Sentences with adverb clauses have two basic patterns in English. The following chart lists adverb time and cause connectors and the sentence patterns used with them:
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The following chart lists the adverb contrast, condition, manner, and place connectors and the sentence patterns used with them:
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The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
____ was late, I missed the appointment.
a.       I
b.      Because
c.       The train
d.      Since he
In this example you should recognize easily that there is a verb, was, that needs a subject. There is also another clause, I missed the appointment. If you choose answer (A) or answer (C), you will have a subject for the verb was, but you will not have a connector to join the two clauses. Because you need a connector to join two clauses, answers (A) and (C) are incorrect. Answer (B) is incorrect because there is no subject for the verb was. Answer (D) is the best answer because there is a subject, he, for the verb was, and there is a connector, since, to join the two clauses.

SKILL 8: USE OTHER ADVERB CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
Adverb clauses can express the ideas of time and cause, as you saw in Skill 7; adverb clauses can also express a number of other ideas, such as contrast, condition, manner, and place. Because these clauses are adverb clauses, they have the same structure as the time and cause clauses in Skill 7. Study the following examples:
I will leave at 7:00 if I am ready.
Although I was late, I managed to catch the train.
In each of these examples, there are two clauses that are correctly joined with adverb connectors. In the first sentence the adverb condition connector if comes in the middle of the sentence. In the second sentence the adverb contrast connector although comes at the beginning of the sentence, and a comma (,) is used in the middle of the sentence.

MORE SENTENCES WITH MULTIPLE CLAUSES
As we saw in Skills 6 through 8, many sentences in English have more than one clause. In Skills 9 through 12, we will see more patterns for connecting the clauses in sentences with multiple clauses. Because these patterns appear frequently in English and on the TOEFL test, you should be very familiar with them. The following chart lists the noun clause connectors and the sentence patterns used with them:
Description: C:\Users\user\Pictures\1.JPG
The following example shows how these sentence patterns could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
____was late caused many problems.
a.       That he
b.      The driver
c.       There
d.      Because
In this example there are two verbs (was and caused), and each of these verbs needs a subject. Answer (B) is wrong because the driver is one subject, and two subjects are needed. Answers (C) and (D) are incorrect because there and because are not subjects. The best answer is answer (A). If you choose answer (A), the completed sentence would be: That he was late caused many problems. In this sentence he is the subject of the verb was, and the noun clause that he was late is the subject of the verb caused.


SKILL 10: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY
In Skill 9 we saw that noun clause connectors were used to introduce noun subject clauses or noun object clauses. In Skill 10 we will see that in some cases a noun clause connector is not just a connector; a noun clause connector can also be the subject of the clause at the same time. The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
____was on television made me angry.
a.       It
b.      The story
c.       What
d.      When
In this example you should notice immediately that there are two verbs, was and made, and each of those verbs needs a subject. Answers (A) and (B) are incorrect because it and the story cannot be the subject for both was and made at the same time. Answer (D) is incorrect because when is not a subject. In answer (C) what serves as both the subject of the verb was and the connector that joins the two clauses together; the noun clause what was on television is the subject of the verb made. Answer (C) is therefore the best answer.

SKILL 11: USE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
An adjective clause is a clause that describes a noun. Because the clause is an adjective, it is positioned directly after the noun that it describes. The following chart lists the adjective clause connectors and the sentence patterns used with them:
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The following example shows how these sentence patterns could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
The gift____selected for the bride was rather expensive.
a.       Because
b.      Was
c.       Since
d.      which we
In this example you should notice quickly that there are two clauses: gift is the subject of the verb was, and the verb selected needs a subject. Because there are two clauses, a connector is also needed. Answers (A) and (C) have connectors, but there are no subjects, so these answers are not correct. Answer (B) changes selected into a passive verb; in this case the sentence would have one subject and two verbs, so answer (B) is not correct. The best answer to this question is answer (D). The correct sentence should say: The gift which we se-lected for the bride was rather expensive. In this sentence gift is the subject of the verb was, we is the subject of the verb selected, and the connector which joins these two clauses.

SKILL 12: USE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTOR SUBJECTS CORRECTLY
In Skill 11 we saw that adjective clause connectors were used to introduce clauses that describe nouns. In Skill 12 we will see that in some cases an adjective clause connector is not just a connector; an adjective clause connector can also be the subject of the clause at the same time. The following chart lists the adjective clause connector/subjects and the sentence patterns used with them:
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The following example shows how these sentence patterns could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
____is on the table has four sections.
a.       The notebook
b.      The notebook which
c.       Because the notebook
d.      In the notebook
In this example you should notice immediately that the sentence has two verbs, is and has, and each of them needs a subject. (You know that table is not a subject because it follows the preposition on; table is the object of the preposition.) The only answer that has two subjects is answer (B), so answer (B) is the correct answer. The correct sentence should say: The notebook which is on the table has four sections. In this sentence notebook is the subject of the verb has, and which is the subject of the verb is. Which is also the connector that joins the two clauses.

SENTENCES WITH INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS
Subjects and verbs are inverted in a variety of situations in English. Inverted subjects and verbs occur most often in the formation of a question. To form a question with a helping verb (be, have, can, could, will, would, etc.), the subject and helping verb are inverted. There are many other situations in English when subjects and verbs are inverted, but if you just remember this method of inverting subjects and verbs, you will be able to handle the other situations. The most common problems with inverted subjects and verbs on the TOEFL test occur in the following situations:
1.      with question words such as what, when, where, why, and how;
2.      after some place expressions;
3.      after negative expressions;
4.      in some conditionals; and
5.      after some comparisons.

SKILL 13 INVERT THE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH QUESTION WORDS
There is some confusion about when to invert the subject and verb after question words such as what, when, where, why, and how. These words can have two very different functions in a sentence. First, they can introduce a question, and in this case the subject and verb that follow are inverted. The following chart lists the question words and their sentence patterns:
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The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
The lawyer asked the client why____it.
a.       did he do
b.      did he
c.       he did
d.      did
In this example the question word why is used to connect the two clauses, so a subject and verb are needed after this connector; this is not a question, so the subject and verb should not be inverted. The best answer is therefore answer (C).

SKILL 14 INVERT THE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH PLACE EXPRESSIONS
After ideas expressing place, the subject and the verb sometimes invert in English. This can happen with single words expressing place, such as here, there, or nowhere. The following chart lists the sentence patterns used with place expressions:
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The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
On the second level of the parking lot ...................
a.       is empty
b.      are empty
c.       some empty stalls are
d.      are some empty stalls
This example begins with the place expression on the second level of the parking lot, which consists of two prepositional phrases, on the second level and of the parking lot. This sentence needs a subject and a verb to be complete, and the two answers that contain both a subject stalls and verb are are answers (C) and (D). The subject and verb should be inverted because the place expression is necessary to complete the idea some empty stalls are ......The best answer is therefore answer (D).

SKILL 15 INVERT THE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH NEGATIVES
The subject and verb can also be inverted after certain negatives and related expressions. When negative expressions, such as no, not, or never, come at the beginning of a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted. The following chart lists the negative expressions and the sentence pattern used with them:
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The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
Only in extremely dangerous situations ______ stopped.
a.       will be the printing presses
b.      the printing presses will be
c.       that the printing presses will be
d.      will the printing presses be
In this example you should notice that the sentence begins with the negative only, so an inverted subject and verb are needed. Answer (D) contains a correctly inverted subject and verb, with the helping verb will, the subject printing presses, and the main verb be, so answer (D) is the best answer.


SKILL 16 INVERT THE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH CONDITIONALS
In certain conditional structures, the subject and verb may also be inverted. This can occur when the helping verb in the conditional clause is had, should, or were, and the conditional connector if is omitted. The following chart lists the conditional verbs that may invert and the sentence patterns used with them:
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The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
The report would have been accepted____in checking its accuracy.
a.       if more care
b.      more care had been taken
c.       had taken more care
d.      had more care been taken
In this example a connector (if) and a subject and verb are needed, but if could be omitted and the subject and verb inverted. Answer (A) is incorrect because it contains the connector if and the subject care but no verb. Answer (B) is incorrect because it contains the subject care and the verb had been taken but does not have a connector. In answers (C) and (D), if has been omitted. Because it is correct to invert the subject more care and the helping verb had, answer (D) is correct.

SKILL 17 INVERT THE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH COMPARISONS
An inverted subject and verb may occur also after a comparison. The inversion of a subject and verb after a comparison is optional, rather than required, and it is a rather formal structure. There have been a number of inverted comparisons on recent TOEFL tests, so you should be familiar with this structure. The following chart lists the sentence patterns used with comparisons:

Description: C:\Users\user\Pictures\1.JPG
The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the structure section of the TOEFL test.
Example         :
The results of the current experiment appear to be more consistent than____the results of any previous tests.
a.       Them
b.      Were
c.       they were
d.      were they
In this example you should notice the comparison more consistent than, and you should also understand that the results of the current experiment is being compared with the results of any previous tests. Because the results of any previous tests is the subject, only a verb is needed; the best answer to this question is therefore answer (B). We know that it is possible for a subject and a verb to be inverted after a comparison, and in this case the subject the results of any previous tests comes after the verb were.

VERB TENSES
An understanding of verb tenses is critical when taking the TOEFL structure. Considering the many tenses there are in any language, this is not undue emphasis on verb tenses. Though there are many tenses taht can be tested, and many intricate exceptions, do not become overwhelmed with the extensive range of the verb tenses. Complete understanding of verb tenses is a goal, but is not needed to do relatively well on the TOEFL structure.
Simple Tenses
1.      Simple Present
·         A general statement of fact
Example          : the earth is a sphere.
·         A habitual activity
Example          : I always skip breakfast
·         A statement of something existing at the time of speaking
·         Example          : I hear you

2.      Simple Past
·         An activity begun and completed at a particular time in the past
Example          : I went to college last year
·         After and before clauses
Example          : After she left, I went directly to bed.
                                                 They arrived before I did.
3.  Simple Future/be going to
·         Future activity
Example          : I will do that later
                                                  I am going to do that later

Perfect Tenses
1.      Present Perfect
·         An activity begun in the past and continued into the present when used with since or for   : Since + a particular time
                                                             For + a duration of time
Example          : I have studied Indonesia for ten years
                                                She has studied French since 2000
·         A repeated activity
                        Example          : I have read four books this month
·         An activity that happened at an unspecified time in the past
                        Example          : I have already visited China
·         An activity in a time clause to emphasize it has been completed before the main clause action begins 
                        Example          : I will go to the movies after I have Finished all my homework
2.      Past Perfect
·         A completed activity before another activity in the past
                        Example          : the had already left by the time I arrived
3.      Future Perfect
·         An activity to be completed before another activity in the future
                        Example          : they will have by the time I arrive

Perhaps the most tedious activity of a learner of English is learning the parts of irregular verbs. For this TOEFL Structure, you will generally need to select the correct verb tenses. Incorrect verb forms are occasionally given for problem irreguler verbs, such as rise/raise and lie/lay.


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